Handbook Contents |
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Module
Descriptions |
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BIOLOGY
Biology
provides for the study of the structures and functions of living
organisms and their interactions with their environment. In
the course, we'll study the functions and processes of cells,
tissues, organs, and systems within various species of living
organisms. We will also consider the nature of science, cellular
structure, processes and function of cells, tissues, organs,
the molecules of life, the acquisition and use of energy by
living organisms, the code of heredity, principles of genetics
and genetic recombination We'll also look at the roles and interdependencies
of organisms within populations, communities, ecosystems, and
the biosphere.
Aim
The
aim of this module is to introduce students to the broad
scope of the biological sciences and to develop an understanding
of the concepts of biological organization and function
at different levels.
Learning
Outcomes
After studying this module you should have acquired the
following knowledge and skills:
Recognize
the main levels within a taxonomic hierarchy and be able
to describe the general features of all the kingdoms and
selected phyla and classes. Students will also be able to
discuss the principles of natural selection and its role
in evolution and the principles of tropic interaction and
population dynamics. You will have acquired an understanding
of the fundamental life processes common to all living things
and be able to discuss the metabolic processes underlying
living systems. Students will also recognize the prokaryotic
and the eukaryotic level of organization and be able to
describe the structure and function of characteristic organelles.
You will also be able to describe the structure and discuss
the significance of viruses. The Human Biology component
of this module will provide students with an understanding
of human physiology. Students will be able to identify the
human anatomy and discuss there function.
Module
details
Language:
English & Chinese
Duration: 6 week lecture period
Lectures: 30 lectures (2 hours lecture)
Tutorials: 10 (1 hour/tutorial)
Attendance: 12 hours per week
Assessments: Final exam 50%
Text Book
Essential
Biology
Neil A. Campbell and Jane B. Reece
Higher Education Press
Pearson Education |
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CELLULAR
PROCESSES SECTION |
1 |
Cell
Structure
The microscope in cell studies and cells as
the basic units of living organisms:
Prokaryotic Cells: The structure of
a bacterial cell and its inclusions as illustrated by
Escherichia coli; understand the roles of the cell wall,
cell surface (plasma) membrane and its invaginations,
flagella, bacterial chromosomes, plasmids, glycogen
granules and lipid droplets; recognise and identify
structures in electron micrographs of bacterial cells
Eukaryotic Cells: The organisation
of eukaryotic cells as illustrated by a leaf palisade
cell and a liver cell; recognise and identify the structure
of these cells as revealed by light and electron microscopy;
understand the magnification and resolution that can
be achieved using light and electron microscopy; interpret
electronmicrographs and identify the organelles; describe
the structure and understand the roles of the nucleus,
nucleolus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, chloroplasts, mitochondria, ribosomes,
centrioles and microtubules, the cellulose cell wall;
describe the structure and understand the properties
and roles of the cell surface (plasma) membrane. |
2 |
Membranes
The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure and the
significance of various membrane components and their
function (phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol and
intrinsic membrane proteins); Membrane dynamics and
the various methods for exchanges between cells and
their environment; Cell-water relationships in plants
and animal and the mechanisms for movement across membranes
such as diffusion and facilitated diffusion; the principles
of osmosis in terms of the diffusion of water molecules
from a higher to a lower water potential through a partially
permeable membrane, the principles involved in active
transport; endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis)
and exocytosis. The role and structure of gap junctions;
Membrane receptors and signaling between cells; Techniques
used by biologist to study membranes. |
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3 |
Cell
Surface Molecules
Major classes of cell surface molecules will be discussed
including: Transport molecules, ion channels G protein
linked receptors; Extracellular matrices (e.g. fibonectin,
laminin and thrombospondin) and recognition molecules
(e.g. MHC antigens); Role of cell surface receptors
and their actions; Graphical representations of some
cell surface molecules e.g cytoskeletal connections;
Cadherin mediated Ca2+-dependent adherence of cells;
Role of Connexins in direct cell communications; The
cell signaling pathways; Receptor activation on inner
surface membrane; Role of Transducin (GT) and second
messengers e.g. calcium binding and phosphorylation
of enzymes by kinases; The small G-proteins & related
protein regulators of GTP hydrolysis: |
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4 |
Viruses
The structure and morphology of viruses; Infective nature
of virus; Characteristics of virus life cycle; The lytic
life cycle bacteriophages: penetration, replication,
maturation, release and re-infection is discussed; Characteristics
of virus life cycle (lysogenic and lytic life cycles);
Quantification of viruses, culture and viral genomics;
Viruses as agents of disease in man, animals and plants
and their role in research.
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METABOLISM
SECTION |
5 |
Molecules
of Life (Part A)
‘Molecules of Life’ deals with the biochemical
processes that occur within living cells and how these
reactions are inter-connected in regulating physiological
activities. Students will be introduced to the concept
of metabolism and the properties and roles of some important
biological molecules and major metabolic pathways. To
begin, those biochemicals responsible for providing
cellular energy, such as ATP, Acetyl CoA, NADH and FADH
will be discussed with respect to their structure and
function in driving metabolic pathways as follows:
Gluconeogenesis and Glycolysis
Glucose metabolism and the production of ATP and intermediates
for biosynthetic pathways under aerobic and anaerobic
conditions. Regulation of glycolysis and the allosteric
inhibition of key enzymes and the cyclic AMP cascade.
Overview of the metabolic relationships between proteins,
carbohydrates and fats.
Glyconeogenesis
Definition of gluconeogenesis and the enzyme steps involved
in glucogenesis. Local allosteric regulation of glycogenesis
by adenine nucleotides (rate –limiting step) and
global control via cAMP cascade in the liver in response
to hormonal signals is discussed in depth.
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides (hexoses and pentoses) and the role
as monomers; structure and roles of the monosaccharides
??and ??glucose, ribose and deoxyribose; the roles of
fructose and galactose; the composition of disaccharides
and polysaccharides and the linking of monomers by glycosidic
bonds; the synthesis and degradation (condensation and
hydrolysis reactions) of disaccharides and polysaccharides;
the monomers of and roles of the disaccharides (sucrose,
maltose and lactose); the structure and roles of the
polysaccharides starch (amylose and amylopectin);
Glycogen Metabolism
The structure and role of glycogen is discussed; the
process of glycogen catabolism (glycogenolysis) and
sythesis (glycogenesis) are also discussed with respect
respect to allosteric inhibition of regulatory enzymes
by nucleotides and calcium; role of insulin in glycogen
metabolism and diseases
associated with glycogen metabolism.Glycogen storage
diseases and the breakdown in regulation and interactions
between glycogen, adrenalin and insulin in regard to
cAMP cascade is discussed; cellulose chitin and glycogen;
relationship between structure and function of these
polysaccharides.
Lipids
The functions and the general nature of lipids as fats,
oils and waxes is discussed including the digestion,
absorbance, transport and distribution of lipoproteins
in mammals; the structure of a triglyceride and the
formation of ester bonds; Topics include: the transport
of cholesterol and the role of VLDL, IDL, LDL and HDL
lipoprotein particles; The roles of lipids as energy
stores, and, in protection, waterproofing, insulation
and buoyancy; the structure, properties and role of
phospholipids and non-glycerol lipids in the cell membranes
Fatty Acid Metabolism
The structure and the physical and chemical properties
of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Their transport
across mitochondrial membrane; the degradation pathway
of fatty acids and the generation of metabolic energy
(?-oxidation pathway) and the synthesis of fatty acids
and the inter-relationship between carbohydrates, lipid
and protein metabolism is discussed.
Steroids
The general structure of steroids is discussed with
regard to cholesterol metabolism and regulation of plasma
levels in mammals. Further discussion focuses on incidence
of Atheroschlerosis and elevated plasma cholesterol.
The use of therapeutic lipid lowering agents is also
mentioned. |
6 |
Molecules
of Life (Part B)
A continuation form lecture 5 we examine the macromolecules:
Protein, DNA, RNA, and the chemicals used in their biosynthesis.
For example: Amino acids for Proteins (workhorses: enzymatic
activity, structural proteins, transport), Ribonucleotides
for RNA and Deoxyribonucleotides for DNA
Amino Acid Metabolism
The structure of amino acids and their metabolic pathways
(transamination, deamination and decarboxylation) will
be discussed including the fate of ammonia (urea cycle)
and disorders of the urea cycle (hyperammonemia, citrulonemia,
argininosuccinicaciduria and hyperargininemia); the
glucose-alanine cycle (common metabolic pathways from
amino acid to ?-keto acids; the function of methyl group
donors and the rare defects and genetic deficiencies
of amino acid metabolism, including their treatment.
Proteins
The nature of amino acids as monomers in the formation
of polypeptides and proteins; the formula and structure
of amino acids; the linking of amino acids by peptide
bonds to form polypeptides; the formation of a peptide
bond; the importance of primary, secondary, tertiary
and quaternary structure of enzymes; the role of condensation
and hydrolysis reactions in the synthesis and degradation
of polypeptides and proteins; the role of ionic, hydrogen
and disulphide bonds in the structure of proteins as
illustrated by insulin and collagen; the nature and
roles of fibrous and globular proteins as illustrated
by collagen and insulin. The general structure and function
of immunoglobulins is also discussed
Vitamins and Minerals: the roles of
vitamins as: cofactors, antioxidants, gene regulators
and their specialized functions. The structure, properties
and function of Vitamin A, D, E, and B will be discussed
Nucleotide Metabolism
During this lecture you will be introduced to the biosynthetic
pathways for the production of purines (De novo pathway),
pyrimidines, mono- and tri-phosphates, ribo- and deoxyribo-nucleotides,
thymidine synthesis and the salvage pathways. The mechanisms
regulating the rates of synthesis of nucleotides and
the diseases associated with defects in nucleotide metabolism
(Lesch Nyhan syndrome and SCID) |
7 |
DNA,
RNA and Protein I
The composition of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA); basic structure of a mononucleotides (thymine,
uracil and cytosine as pyrimidines; adenine and guanine
as purines); condensation reactions and the formation
of mononucleotides and polynucleotides (DNA and RNA);
the structure and roles of messenger and transfer RNA;
the structure of DNA (base pairing and the double helix);
the mechanism of replication of DNA (semiconservative). |
8 |
Lecture
8 DNA, RNA_and Protein II
the nature of the genetic code; gene structure and code;
the processes of transcription and translation in the
synthesis of proteins (for example milk production)
; the function of the ribosomes, codons and anticodons
in relation to messenger and transfer RNA; the Human
Genome Project. |
ENZYMOLOGY
SECTION |
9 |
Enzyme
Properties and Classification
Classification according to E.C.; The major enzyme classes
and their actions (oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases,
lyases, isomerases and ligases); a detailed discussion
of the types and structures of cofactors; the mechanism
of activator ions (metal ions, cosubstrates and prosthetic
groups) in regulating enzyme activity; |
10 |
Enzyme
Kinetics and Regulation
The concept of the active site and specificity of isozymes;
Active site-directed and non-active site-directed specificity,
the biological significance of isozymes and their potential
use for clinical diagnosis; the three levels of enzyme
specificity; two models of enzyme-substrate interactions.
Factors affecting enzyme activity (temperature: Q10
values, pH, substrate and enzyme concentrations); initial
velocity as a function of substrate concentration; the
effects of varying substrate concentration; Michaelic-Menten
Model; Determination of Km and Vmax (Lineweaver-Burk
Plot and Woolf Plot); Inhibition of enzyme activity
(Irreversible and reversible) and thermal denaturation;
the commercial uses of enzymes as pectinases in food
modification and proteases in biological detergents; |
ENERGETICS
SECTION |
11 |
Cellular
Respiration
The role of respiration as an energy-releasing process
is discussed with reference to the following topics:
Glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle; Oxidative Phosphorylation
and the mitochonria; the effects of uncoupling reagents;
Anaerobic respiration (fermentation/lactic acid production);
Aerobic respiration and the effects of asphyxiation
and poisoning. |
12 |
Photosynthesis
The biochemistry of photosynthesis and respiration are
studied in order to enable understanding of how ATP
is generated and how biological compounds are synthesized,
in this regard the use of isotopes to study plant photosynthesis
is also discussed. A closer look at the physiology of
plants cells and the role of chloroplasts with regard
to light dependent and independent reactions is also
given. The role and arrangement of photosynthetic pigments
is discussed including the photosynthetic electron transfer
chain. Topics in Plant Science include basic plant structure
and function. This will include the anatomy and physiology
of the plant cell, tissues, roots, stems, and leaf growth
and development. |
CELL
AND NUCLEAR DIVISION SECTION |
13 |
Mitosis
and Meiosis
This lecture will centre on the replication and division
of nuclei and cells. Students will gain an understanding
of chromosome behaviour in mitosis and meiosis. In addition,
we will examine the structure of a chromosome; the behaviour
of chromosomes during the cell cycle stages of meiosis
and mitosis; the events of prophase, metaphase, anaphase
and telophase; the significance of meiosis and mitosis
on chromosome number and variation in relation to daughter
nuclei chromosomes numbers and type; the production
of new individuals and the transfer of genetic information
from parent to offspring; the nature of natural and
artificial cloning in plants and animals. |
GENETICS
AND SELECTION SELECTION
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14 |
Genetic
Code
This section explores some of the ways in which the
understanding of genes that has been developed over
the past half century is being applied. Elucidation
of the structure and functions of nucleic acids has
helped to explain how genes incorporate coded information
which determines the nature of organisms, and how, during
the cell cycle and sexual reproduction, genetic information
is copied and passed on. |
15 |
Inherited
Change
The passage of information from parent to off-spring,
including the nature of genes and alleles and their
role in determining the phenotype is discussed under
the following topics:
Monohybrid inheritance: inheritance of single characteristic
according to Mendel’s first law or principle of
segregation. Dihybrid inheritance: Two pairs of alleles
are considered with respect to Mendel’s Second
Law or principle of independent assortment.
Linked genes (Genes located on the same chromosome)
and sex linked genes are described with examples of
X-linked traits, such as red-green colour blindness,
haemophila and premature balding. Gene Interaction is
also discussed with regard to the interaction of genes
leading to incomplete dominance or recessiveness as
in the case of human blood groups.
Variations based on phenotypic differences (discontinuous
and continuous) will be discussed with examples such
as the blood groups in Man; sex in plants and animals
and wing length in Drosophilia,) and continuous (multifactorial
inheritance) |
16 |
Mutations
in Genes
The causative agents of mutation and the implications
on somatic and germline genetic material are discussed
in reference to the effects on gene function (Null,
hypomorph, hypermorph, ectopic expression, etc.). The
effects of DNA mutation on proteins (temperature sensitive
mutations in Siamese cats) is discussed including point
mutations (missense, silent and nonsense) and frameshift
mutations. Case studies include: Sickle Cell Anemia;
Familial Hypercholesterolemia; Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
deficiency; various defects in amino acid metabolism
(Phenyketonuria; Tyrosinaemia; Alkaptonuria; Goiterous
Cretinism; Albinism) and carbohydrate metabolism. DNA
repair systems and the mechanisms are also discussed. |
17 |
Chromosomal
Mutations
Students will learn about the two groups of chromosomal
mutation (Non-disjunction and structural) and the techniques
for detecting human chromosomal disorders. The classification
of chromosomes and application in medical karyotying
(chromosome map) is discussed with respect to the types
of syndromes resulting from chromosomal mutation(s).
The consequence of sex linked disorders (nondisjunction)
is discussed with reference to the following: Turner’s;
Kleinfelter’s; Triplo-X syndromes; and Down Syndrome.
Structural changes (macromutations) in chromosomes (inversions,
deletions, duplications, etc) is discussed with examples
such as Cri-du-chat Syndrome; Prader-Willi Syndrome;
Chronic myelogenous leukemia etc. The use of FISH to
detect translocations is also illustrated. |
EVOLUTION
AND ECOLOGY SECTION |
18 |
Diversity
and Evolution
This lecture begins with an introduction to the unit
and diversity of life that has resulted through evolutionary
adaptation followed by taxonomy of life forms and the
basis for bionomial nomenclature. A historical review
leading to our present understanding about life on earth
according to the observations of Charles Darwin and
his theory of evolution by natural selection. An account
of the processes that have transformed life including
the role of genes and the agents of evolutionary change
such as Mutation, Gene Flow (Migration and Hybridization),
Nonrandom Mating, Genetic Drift (Founder Effect and
Bottleneck Effect), Selection (Artificial and Natural).
The types of natural selection that cause a change in
allele frequency will also be discussed with reference
to examples. Students will be introduced to the Hardy-Weinberg
Principle the aspects that determine the population
dynamics. The dynamics and mechanisms of marco- and
micro- evolution and speciation. The patterns of speciation
(Gradualism and punctuated equilibrium) and reduction
in variation due to pre- and post- zygotic barriers.
The effects of convergent evolution, in-breeding and
out-breeding and genetic drift are also discussed. |
19 |
Introduction
to Ecology
Ecology is the study of ecosystems: how they function,
achieve balance and continually change. Environmental
science is the study of how humans and other species
interact with one another and with the non-living environment.
Consideration is given in this module to the important
principles underlying the maintenance of ecosystems,
the levels of biological organization, the ecosphere
compartments and interactions, and ecological energetics
and trophic levels including energy flow and nutrient
cycles, the dynamics and stability of ecosystems and
the effects of human activity. Ecological homeostasis
is discussed with regard to energetics, the second law
of thermodynamics, photosynthesis, Gross Primary Production
(GPP) and energy efficiencies (The 10% law). The dynamics
of populations and communities is also discussed with
reference to population growth curves, Y and K selection,
Biogeochemical nutrient cycles (The Phosphorus cycle,
water cycle, nitrogen cycle, fixation and the carbon
cycle). |
HUMAN
PHYSIOLOGY SECTION |
20 |
Homeostasis
As the name implies, processes by which the human body
actively maintains stable conditions through feedback
systems will be discussed with regard to the internal
components of homeostasis and control systems (Extrinsic
and Intrinsic). The components of negative and positive
feedback mechanisms/ loop will be discussed with reference
to TSH, oxytocin production, enzyme regulation, hormone
actions and blood pressure homeostatis. Imbalances in
homeostasis with regard to disorders and disease conditions
will also be discussed |
21 |
Circulatory
System
In this lecture students will be introduced to human
physiological aspects of: respiration with discussions
on the respiratory system anatomy; pulmonary ventilation;
heart-lung anatomy and function; the exchange and transport
of gases in the blood; Constituents, formation and functions
of blood (also blood typing); structure and function
of blood vessels: Arteries, Capillaries and Veins; Factors
affecting circulation including Capillary Exchange.
A detailed discussion about the generation and conduction
of the cardiac impulse in the human heart including:
the uses of the ECG; the basis and interpretation of
common abnormalities of rhythm and conduction; the correlation
of pressure, volume and electrical changes occurring
in the heart during the cardiac cycle.
Physiological processes which control the rate and output
of the heart and the blood pressure will be discussed
including: the medullary centre; innervation of heart
and blood vessels; function of baroreceptors; circulatory
reflexes and the effects of circulating hormones. |
22 |
Immunology
This lecture provides an introduction to the human body’s
ability to resist or eliminate potentially harmful foreign
materials or abnormal cells. Discussions will consist
of the following points: Humoral (B lymphocytes) and
cell-mediated (T cells) immune responses; Specific and
Non-specific immune responses; Description and function
of lymphatic vessels; lymphoid cells, tissues &
organs; and resistance to disease. The mechanism of
T and B lymphocytes action against invading pathogens
(viruses & bacteria) will also be discussed and
the removal of 'worn-out' cells (e.g., old RBCs) and
tissue debris (e.g., from injury or disease); Identification
and destruction of abnormal or mutant cells (primary
defense against cancer) including the rejection of 'foreign'
cells (e.g., organ transplant) and inappropriate responses
such as allergies and autoimmune diseases. The structure
and classification of antibodies will be discussed including
their primary and secondary responses in the development
of active and passive immunity. |
23 |
Digestive
System (Gastro-Intestinal Tract)
This lecture provides a broad understanding of the functions,
controls (Extrinsic and Intrinsic nerves and hormones)
and anatomy of the GIT. In addition, the general principles
of motility, including disorders of motility is discussed.
Histological aspects of the alimentary canal is also
discussed including the anatomy, function and secretion
of gastric juices by the stomach. In this regard the
action of exocrine gland cells is also explained and
the major reactions leading to the secretion and control
of HCl secretion by the parietal cell. The properties
and function of the small intestine is included with
reference to the chemical digestion of the following:
Carbohydrates, Protein lipid digestion and nucleic acid
digestion; The phases of gastric secretion in relation
to feeding and the factors responsible for each phase
are discussed. Peptic Ulcer Disease is also discussed
with regard to the causative agent and likely treatments.
The role of the pancreas (pancreatic juices) and liver
anatomy and function are also discussed. The action
and release of bile by the gall bladder is discussed
in addition to the anatomy and histology of the gall
bladder. The functions of the large intestine is also
discussed. |
24 |
Renal Physiology
Students
will understand the effects of constriction/dilation
of afferent and efferent arterioles on glomerular
filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow (RBF).
The student
will be able to describe the mechanisms controlling
constriction and dilation of the afferent and efferent
arterioles of the glomerulus.
The student
will be able to explain how a change in renal blood
flow will affect GFR, and what autoregulatory hormonal
and neural mechanisms will function to maintain GFR,
RBF, filtration fraction and fluid reabsorption in the
proximal tubule.
Describe
the physiology and integration of the above systems
and the overall control of body fluid volume, tonicity
and pH, together with development of some pathophysiological
changes occurring in these systems in major disease
states
• Water balance and body fluid composition
• Anatomy and physiology of the nephron.
• Renal concentrating and diluting mechanisms
• Urine formation and composition. Renal function
tests. Micturition
• Renal pathophysiology. Acid base balance
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25 |
Nervous
System Introduction
This introductory lecture will provide an understanding
of the functions of the nervous system and its development
as an important adaptation in the evolution of body
size and mobility. An overview the human nervous system
structure (divisions) and its role in sensory and motor
processes. Nerve tissue structural and functional classifications
will also be discussed including: Nerves and the Nervous
System; Resting membrane potential; Neurons their classification
& Neuroglia cells; The role of myelin and neuronal
membranes; The cell membrane potential (resting potential)
and transmission of nerve impulses; Ion diffusion, active
transport and potassium flux across membranes; and Threshold
stimulus & action potential |
26 |
Central
Nervous System/Peripheral Nervous System
In this lecture, structures and divisions of the human
brain (CNS) with respect to the functional aspects of
the brain, brain stem and spinal cord will be discussed
in depth. The effects of neuronal injury (stroke) and
recovery will also be discussed as will diseases of
the CNS (Multiple Sclerosis, Alzheimer’s Disease,
Parkinson’s Disease and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis).
The major divisions of the PNS (Somatic Nervous System
and Autonomic Nervous System) and the functional divisions
will be discussed in this lecture. Communication pathways:
somatic (afferent, efferent) and Visceral (afferent,
efferent) neurons will also be discussed. |
27 |
Synapse
and Neurotransmitters
Students will be introduced to the action of neurotransmitters
in the PNS; The types of neurotransmitters (classification)
will also be discussed in relation to their accumulation;
functions and locations of release within the nervous
system. |
28 |
Endocrine
System and Hormone Action
In this lecture students will be introduced to the main
classes of hormones and their mode of action in regulating
cellular functions. In particular the role of glands
(Pituitary, Hypothalamus, adrenal, etc.) and the production
of hormones (FSH, LH, Prolactin, Growth Hormone, ACTH,
TSH, etc.) will be discussed with respect to their action
on target organs and glands. We will also discuss the
regulation of blood calcium levels, PTH secretion, blood
glucose and blood pressure and volume by hormone action.
Topics include the activation of the second messenger
system and the use of commercially available hormones. |
| 29 |
Reproduction
The anatomy and function of the male reproductive system.
Topics discussed in this lecture include:
The function of Sertoli cells and sustentacular cells
in male testis
Process of producing spermatozoa and the role of seminal
vesicles and prostate gland.
Hormonal control of spermatogenesis and the effects of
testosterone and DHT
The urogenital anatomy
The anatomy and function of the female reproductive system
and cycle is discussed in reference to the following subjects:
Female reproductive anatomy and function of ovaries, uterine
tubes, uterus, vagina and mammary glands
The process of oogenesis and the ovarian cycle and uterine
(menstrual) cycle
The role of hormones in derived from the hypothalamus,
anterior pituitary gland and ovaries in regulating the
female reproductive cycle |
30 |
Muscle
Physiology
The key concepts covered in this lecture include 1)
the functional characteristics of muscles; 2) muscle
structure; 3) muscle contractions and 4) force response.
The role of sarcolemma, T-tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum
and calcium during nervous impulse will be discussed
in relation to the function of calcium and troponin
in causing a movement in the attached tropomyosin molecule
and actin myofilament (Cross-bridge Cycle). Other aspects
of muscle force such as force modulation and response;
electro-myography; length-tension relationship; and
types of contractions will also be discussed. |
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