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Introduction
Human anatomy is a vast discipline in its own right and
the information given in lectures will usually be concerned
with the basic knowledge you require to understand function.
In some organs and tissues, for example in the nephrons
of the kidney, anatomy and physiology are inextricably linked:
renal function cannot be understood without knowledge of
the anatomy of the nephron.
Human
physiology also underpins our knowledge of the processes
which disrupt normal function (pathophysiology) leading
to disease states. This is essential for an understanding
of pathology and the symptoms which patients may experience
during an illness. In addition, it is the foundation for
pharmacology, the science which concerns the action of chemical
substances (drugs) on living tissues and therapeutics which
deals with the treatment of disease by drugs.
You
will develop a sound knowledge of normal and abnormal tissue
function and of the action of drugs on these tissues, but
remember that a drug given to a patient becomes a medicine
and its action on the body may be modified by a number of
factors, especially its formulation.
Many
of the biochemical mechanisms in cells are a series of chemical
processes however complex functions, such as the activities
of the brain, cannot be explained as a simple series of
molecular interactions. Physiology can rarely be reduced
to a series of formulae and much of the work in this module
will be descriptive.
Aims
This module aims to introduce the disciplines of anatomy
and physiology and provide knowledge and understanding of
the functional organisation of the human body, ranging from
the structure and physiology of individual excitable cells
to the function and integrated control of selected body
systems, together with their pathophysiology and major disease
states.
COURSE DURATION AND DELIVERY
There are 53 lectures delivered over a period of 10 weeks.
Each lecture requires two hours for completion.
Medical specialists or other healthcare professionals who
are interested in just one area of the courrse content are
welcome to make arrangement with us to attend the relevant
lectures only and not the entire programme.
The programme order may be modified to accommodate the availability
of our overseas lectures.
Discipline Specific Skills
On completion of the module you will be able to:
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Describe and interpret simple physiological
experiments on human subjects and biological materials
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Analyse physiological and associated
biochemical data appropriately
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Show understanding of some pathophysiological
changes associated with selected disease states,
relating these changes to major symptoms/signs presented
in case study work
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Outline practical and ethical
limitations on physiological investigations in human
subjects and biological materials
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Course Synopsis and Learning Outcomes
CELL ORGANISATION
Lecture 1: Cell Structure and Function
Students will be able to describe the structure
and function of the mammalian cell. They should also understand
the processes regulating normal growth and differentiation,
and how the cell responds to external stimuli. Lecture topics
include: Levels of Organisation; Basic Life Processes; Homeostasis;
Feedback Mechanisms; Human Cell; Cell Membrane and Functions;
Cells, Cytoplasm and Organelles; Gene Expression; Cellular
Environment and Components; Membrane Transport; Cellular
Metabolism;
TISSUES
Lecture 2: Tissues
An introduction to Histology techniques is given and its
use in identifying the major tissue groups (Epithelial,
Connective, Muscle and Nervous tissues) and glands. The
characteristic structures of tissues, their development
and functions
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Lecture 3: Physiology of skin
Students will be given instruction on how to identify the
structures that make up the integumentary system. Describe
the functions of the skin. Distinguish between the two layers
that form the skin. Compare the structure of hair with that
of nails. Identify two types of glands found in the skin,
and describe their function.
Lecture 4: Connective Tissues
These most abundant and widely distributed tissues are discussed
with regard to general development features, classification
and function.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Lecture 5: Endocrine System
The regulation of body homeostasis within narrow ranges
by the sensory and effector systems will be discussed. Topics
include: the negative feedback system; sensors; Hormone
Action; Hormone Receptors and Control; Glucose and Insulin
Lecture 6: Hormone Action
Students will be introduced to the main classes of hormones
and their mode of action in regulating cellular functions.
Topics include the activation of the second messenger system
and a case review regarding commercially available hormones.
Lecture 7: Steroid Hormones
The properties of steroid hormones and their biosynthetic
pathways will be discussed as well as the action of hormones
on target cells and their effect on enzyme activities
Lecture 8: Hormone Response
An overview of the role of the Pituitary and the relationship
between the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonads in regulating
the release of hormones such as FSH, LH, Prolactin, Growth
Hormone, ACTH and TSH will be given with respect to their
action on target organs and glands.
Lecture 9: Hormonal Regulation of
Metabolism
The role of insulin, glucagons and catecholamines in the
regulation of metabolism and the implications of impaired
control mechanisms.
Lecture 10: Growth and Energy
Students will gain and understanding of the action of hormones
(Growth Hormone, IGF-1 and Thyroid Hormones: TSH, T3,T4)
that are directly involved in the growth and production
of energy. Changes in the levels of these hormones will
also be examined with reference to congenital malfunction,
environmental effects and aging.
Lecture 11: Thyroid
The effects of the thyroid hormones will be discussed in
greater depth. Lecture topics will examine the regulation,
production, transport and metabolism of the thyroid hormones,
TSH, T4, T3. An evaluation of thyroid function based on
laboratory testing will also be discussed
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
• Structure of neurones, basis of excitability
• Ion channels. Resting and action potentials
• Conduction in unmyelinated and myelinated nerve
• Generator potentials and introduction to sensory
physiology
• Striated muscle anatomy, contraction and pathophysiology
• Neuromuscular junction. Smooth and cardiac muscle
physiology
• Anatomy of synapses. Neurotransmission processes
and transduction mechanism
Lecture 12: Divisions of the Nervous
System
This introductory lecture will provide an understanding
of the functions of the nervous system and its development
as an important adaptation in the evolution of body size
and mobility. An overview the human nervous system structure
(divisions) and its role in sensory and motor processes.
Nerve tissue structural and functional classifications will
also be discussed.
Lecture 13: Central Nervous System
In this lecture, structures and divisions of the human brain
(CNS) with respect to the functional aspects of the brain,
brain stem and spinal cord will be discussed in depth. The
effects of neuronal injury (stroke) and recovery will also
be discussed as will diseases of the CNS (Multiple Sclerosis,
Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease and
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis).
Lecture 14: Peripheral Nervous System
The major divisions of the PNS (Somatic Nervous System and
Autonomic Nervous System) and the functional divisions will
be discussed in this lecture. Communication pathways: somatic
(afferent, efferent) and Visceral (afferent, efferent) neurons
will also be discussed. Students will be introduced to the
action of neurotransmitters in the PNS.
Lecture 15: Neurons and the Nerve Tissues
Topics covered will include: nerves and the nervous system;
resting membrane potential; neurons and supporting cells;
the role of myelin; the synaptic cleft or synapse; ion channels;
ion flux; threshold stimulus and action potential; and introduction
to neurotransmitters.
Lecture 16: Synapse and Neurotransmitters
In these lectures we will discuss features of the receptor,
synaptic (pre-synaptic membrane; synaptic cleft and postsynaptic
membrane) and action potentials. The types of neurotransmitters
(classification) will also be discussed in relation to their
accumulation; functions and locations of release within
the nervous system. Some common disorders attributed to
neurotransmitters (toxins) will also be discussed.
Lecture 17: Sensory Nervous System
This lecture will introduce the students to the following
key concepts: 1) Types and functional categories of sensory
receptors; 2) Adaptation of tonic and phasic receptors;
3) Law of specific nerves energies; 4) Receptive energies
and 5) Lateral inhibition
MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY
Lecture 18: Muscle Physiology - Introduction
The key concepts covered in this lecture include 1) the
functional characteristics of muscles; 2) muscle structure;
3) muscle contractions and 4) force response.
Lecture 19: Muscle Contraction
The role of sarcolemma, T-tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum
and calcium during nervous impulse will be discussed in
relation to the function of calcium and troponin in causing
a movement in the attached tropomyosin molecule and actin
myofilament (Cross-bridge Cycle). Other aspects of muscle
force such as force modulation and response; electromyography;
length-Tension relationship; types of contractions, will
also be discussed.
Lecture 20: Muscle Energetics
The key concepts that will be discussed in this lecture
are: 1) Type of contractions; 2) Length-Tension relationship;
3) Force-velocity relationship; 4) Muscle metabolism; 5)
Fiber types; and 6) Diseases that affect muscle.
Lecture 21: Defects in Glycolysis
Lecture topics include: The effects of lactate accumulation
(threshold) in relation to fitness; McArdles’s Disease;
Rhabdomyolysis; Mitochondrial myopathy; Structure and Innervation
of muscle spindle; Reflex action and tendons.
BONE PHYSIOLOGY
Lecture 22: Bone Physiology
The key concepts that will be presented in this lecture
are: 1) Structure (anatomy and chemical composition) and
function of bone; 2) Bone remodelling and effects of hormones;
3) Bone mass and density; 4) Bone pathophysiology (osteomalacia,
Paget’s disease, Osteomgenesis imperfecta, Osteoporosis)
Lecture 23: Bone Structure and Function
Topics include: Osteoblasts and bone formation; musculoskeletal
injuries; Bone fracture; Drugs and bone fractures; Aging
of musculoskeletal system; Bone loss and aging; Aging and
strength; ATP depletion; Muscle contraction (old/new)
GASTRO-INTENSTINAL TRACT
Lectures 24 to 30: Nutritional and Alimentary Canal
On completion of the module you will have gained:
a broad understanding of functions
of GIT |
an appreciation of the anatomy
& histology of the GIT |
an understanding of the major nervous
and hormonal control mechanisms |
a basic appreciation of motility
and it’s control |
| a knowledge of some common conditions
where motility is disordered |
| an understanding of the nutrition,
composition of foods, normal dietary requirements |
You will be able to:
| describe the anatomy of the stomach |
| describe the structure and cell
types found in a gastric gland |
| outline the components of gastric
juice and their functions |
| explain the major reactions leading
to the secretion of HCl by the parietal cell |
| list the factors responsible for
stimulating secretion |
| describe the phases of gastric
secretion in relation to feeding and the factors
responsible for each phase |
| comment on PUD and it’s main
causes |
| explain the importance of gastric
motility in relation to filling, storage, mixing
& emptying and the factors which control these
processes |
| describe pancreatic and liver function
and pathophysiology |
RENAL SYSTEM
Lectures 37 to 41: Renal Hemedynamics
On completion of the module you will be able to:
| understand the effects of constriction/dilation
of afferent and efferent arterioles on glomerular
filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow (RBF). |
| describe the mechanisms controlling
constriction and dilation of the afferent and efferent
arterioles of the glomerulus. |
| explain how a change in renal blood
flow will affect GFR, and what autoregulatory hormonal
and neural mechanisms will function to maintain
GFR, RBF, filtration fraction and fluid reabsorption
in the proximal tubule. |
describe the physiology and integration
of the above systems and the overall control of
body fluid volume, tonicity and pH, together with
development of some pathophysiological changes occurring
in these systems in major disease states:
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Water balance and body fluid composition
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Anatomy and physiology of the nephron.
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Renal concentrating and diluting
mechanisms
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Urine formation and composition.
Renal function tests. Micturition
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Renal pathophysiology. Acid base
balance
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BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Lectures 42 to 45: Blood and Lymphatic System
(covered in depth in Immunology)
You will be able to describe the:
| Constituents, formation and functions
of blood (also blood typing), haemostasis and Anaemia’s |
| Structure & Function of blood
vessels: Arteries, Capillaries, Veins |
| Factors Affecting Circulation |
| Capillary Exchange |
| Circulatory Pathway |
Function of lymphatic vessels
The lymphoid cells, tissues &
organ
Resistance to disease:
-Defense against invading pathogens
(viruses & bacteria)
-Removal of 'worn-out' cells (e.g.,
old RBCs) & tissue debris (e.g., from injury
or disease)
-Identification & destruction
of abnormal or mutant cells (primary defense against
cancer)
-Rejection of 'foreign' cells (e.g.,
organ transplant)
Inappropriate responses:
– Allergies - response to normally harmless
substances
– Autoimmune diseases |
Lectures 46 to 48: Cardiovascular Physiology
On completion of this section of the module you will be
able:
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To describe the anatomy of the
heart and various types of blood vessels in the
circulation
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To describe the generation and
conduction of the cardiac impulse in the human heart;
the form of the pacemaker and ventricular action
potentials.
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To outline the origin, recording
and uses of the ECG, understanding the basis and
interpreting common abnormalities of rhythm and
conduction.
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To correlate the pressure, volume
and electrical changes occurring in the heart during
the cardiac cycle.
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To describe the mechanical properties
of isolated cardiac muscle and the intact heart
and to understand the effects of changes in inflow
and outflow pressures on these properties
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To describe physiological processes
which control the rate and output of the heart and
the blood pressure, including the medullary centre,
innervation of heart and blood vessels, function
of baroreceptors, circulatory reflexes and the effects
of circulating hormones
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To compare and contrast the characteristics
of blood vessels, describe the formation of tissue
fluid and development of oedema and outline the
control of blood volume via the renin-angiotensin
system.
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To understand the distribution
of blood in the cardiovascular system, the relationship
between pressure, flow and resistance in the circulation.
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To understand the adverse effects
of hypertension.
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Interpret cardiac markers
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Lectures 49 to 52: Respiration
Students will be able to describe and explain the function
of the following:
| Respiratory System Anatomy |
| Pulmonary Ventilation |
| Lung Volumes, Capacities, Tests |
| Gas Exchanges |
| Transport of Gases |
Lecture 53: Reproduction
You will be able to describe and explain the following processes:
| Male reproductive system |
| Female reproductive system |
| Female reproductive cycle |
ASSESSMENTS
Assessment consists of a formal 2 hour examination
(80%) and coursework (20%). |
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